Industrial Revolution


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


(Redirected from The Industrial Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Industrial_Revolution&redirect=no))


(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/300px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg)
A Watt steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt_steam_engine), the steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine) that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom) and the world.1 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-0)


Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation had a profound effect on the socioeconomic (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics) and cultural (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural)Britain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom). The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. A process that continues as industrialisation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialisation). The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way. In the later part of the 1700s there occurred a transition in parts of Great Britain's (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain) previously manual-labour-based economy towards machine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine)-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the ....ile (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....ile) industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal), improved roads and railways (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport). The introduction of steam power (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine) (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in ....ile manufacturing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....ile_manufacturing)) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[2] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-1) The development of all-....l machine tools (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool) in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe) and North America (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America) during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.[3] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-2)

The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the eighteenth century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution) around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship), railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the internal combustion engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine) and electrical power generation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power).

The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians. Eric Hobsbawm (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm) held that it 'broke out' in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[4] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-3) while T. S. Ashton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Ashton) held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.[5] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-4) Some twentieth century historians such as John Clapham (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clapham) and Nicholas Crafts (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Crafts) have argued that the process of economic and social change took place gradually and the term revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution) is not a true de......ion of what took place. This is still a subject of debate amongst historians.[6] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-5)[7] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-6)

GDP (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product) per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism) economy.[8] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-7) The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth) in capitalist economies.9 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-8)
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-8)

Name history

The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was common in the 1830s. Louis-Auguste Blanqui (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Auguste_Blanqui) in 1837 spoke of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels) in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England_in_1 844) spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society."
In his book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keywords:_A_Vocabulary_of_Culture_and_Society), Raymond Williams (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Williams)Industry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry): The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Southey) and Owen (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Owen), between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake) in the early 1790s and Wordsworth (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wordsworth) at the turn of the century.
Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Toynbee), whose lectures given in 1881 gave a detailed account of the process states in the entry for .

Causes


The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism) in Britain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain) after the English Civil War (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War) in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the spread of disease was lessened, thereby preventing the epidemics common in previous times[citation needed (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)]. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly, leading to a larger workforce. The Enclosure (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclosure) movement and the British Agricultural Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution) made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in agriculture into cottage industry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottage_industry), for example weaving (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving), and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factories). The colonial expansion (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_expansion) of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_markets) and accumulation of capital (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_%28economics%29) are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_revolution) of the 17th century.

Technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine).[10] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-9)

Historian Lewis Mumford (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Mumford) has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the early Middle Ages (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages), much earlier than most estimates. He explains that the model for standardised mass production (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production) was the printing press (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press) and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites the monastic (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastic) emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that mediaeval (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediaeval) cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.

The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariff) on goods traded amongst them.[11] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-10)

Governments' grant of limited monopolies (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly) to inventors under a developing patent (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent) system (the Statute of Monopolies 1623 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies_1623)) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewards inventors by allowing, e.g, James Watt (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt) to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby enabling inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.[12] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-11) Watt's monopoly may have prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Trevithick), William Murdoch (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Murdoch) or Jonathan Hornblower (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Hornblower), from introducing improved steam engines thereby retarding the industrial revolution by up to 20 years.[13] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-12)

Causes for occurrence in Europe



Further information: Industrial Revolution in China (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_China) and Muslim Agricultural Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#Agricultural_Revolution)

One question of active interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_%28disambiguation%29), and the Middle East (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East), or at other times like in Classical Antiquity (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Antiquity)[14] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-13) or the Middle Ages (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages).[15] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-14) Numerous factors have been suggested, including ecology, government, and culture.
Benjamin Elman (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Elman&action=edit&redlink=1) argues that China was in a high level equilibrium trap (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_level_equilibrium_trap) in which the non-industrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high costs of capital. Kenneth Pomeranz (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Pomeranz), in the Great Divergence, argues that Europe and China were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial Revolution in Europe were sources of coal near manufacturing centres, and raw materials such as food and wood from the New World (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World), which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way that China could not.[16] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-15)
However, most historians contest the assertion that Europe and China were roughly equal because modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity) (and Britain had a per capita income (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita_income) of nearly 2,000 dollars[17] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-16)) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. Also, the average interest rate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_rate) was about 5% in Britain and over 30% in China, which illustrates how capital was much more abundant in Britain; capital that was available for investment.
Some historians such as David Landes (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Landes)[18] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-Landes-17) and Max ...er (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_...er) credit the different belief systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaeo-Christianity), and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius), Mencius (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius), Han Feizi (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Feizi) (Legalism (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_%28Chinese_philosophy%29)), Lao Tzu (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_Tzu)Taoism (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism)), and Buddha (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha) (Buddhism (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism)). The key difference between these belief systems was that those from Europe focused on the individual, while Chinese beliefs centred around relationships between people. The family unit was more important than the individual for the large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a role in why the Industrial Revolution took much longer to occur in China. There was the additional difference as to whether people looked backwards to a reputedly glorious past for answers to their questions or looked hopefully to the future. Furthermore, Western European peoples had experienced the Renaissance (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance), Reformation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation)Enlightenment (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment); other parts of the world had not had a similar intellectual breakout, a condition that holds true even into the 21st century.[18] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-Landes-17) ( and
Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajani_Palme_Dutt) said: "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in England."[19] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-18) In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms, with the three major ones being the Marathas (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathas), Sikhs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhs) and the Mughals (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughals). In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors—agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away in palace treasuries, and as such, were easily moved to Britain.

Causes for occurrence in Britain



The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain) had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire#Colonization) or that profits from the British slave trade (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade) between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. It has been pointed out, however, that slavery provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution.[20] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-19)
Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars) as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy)[21] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-20)). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position — an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.
Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclosure) of common land and the related Agricultural Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution) made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_England), the English Midlands (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midlands), South Wales (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Wales) and the Scottish Lowlands (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands). Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the ....iles industry.
The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. In large part due to the Enclosure movement, the peasantry was destroyed as significant source of resistance to industrialisation, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.[22] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-21) (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc's (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc) The Servile State (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Servile_State).)

Protestant work ethic


Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneur) class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.[23] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-22) The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic) (see Max ...er (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_...er)) and the particular status of the Baptists (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptists) and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends) and Presbyterians (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterians) that had flourished with the English Civil War (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War). Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution) of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt) by the Bank of England (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_England), contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.

Dissenters (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Dissenters) found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_universities_of_Scotland)). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church) became mandatory due to the Test Act (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Act), they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarians), in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences —areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.

Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_class), such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_revolution) of the 17th century.

Innovations


The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, made in the second half of the 18th century:
....iles - Cotton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton) spinning (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_%28....iles%29) using Richard Arkwright's (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Arkwright) water frame (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_frame), James Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_Jenny), and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_Mule) (a combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). This was patented in 1769 and so came out of patent in 1783. The end of the patent was rapidly followed by the erection of many cotton mills (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill). Similar technology was subsequently applied to spinning worsted (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worsted) yarn (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn) for various ....iles and flax (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax) for linen (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen).
Steam power - The improved steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine) invented by James Watt (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt) was initially mainly used for pumping out mines (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining), but from the 1780s was applied to power machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterpower) was not available.
Iron founding - In the Iron industry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironworks), coke (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fuel%29) was finally applied to all stages of iron smelting (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting), replacing charcoal (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal). This had been achieved much earlier for lead (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead) and copper (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper) as well as for producing pig iron (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron) in a blast furnace (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace), but the second stage in the production of bar iron (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron) depended on the use of potting and stamping (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Potting_and_stamping&action=edit&redlink=1) (for which a patent (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent) expired in 1786) or puddling (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_furnace) (patented by Henry Cort (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cort) in 1783 and 1784).
These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which allowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined. This is not to belittle many other inventions, particularly in the ....ile (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....ile) industry. Without some earlier ones, such as spinning jenny (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_jenny) and flying shuttle (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_shuttle) in the ....ile industry and the smelting of pig iron with coke, these achievements might have been impossible. Later inventions such as the power loom (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom) and Richard Trevithick's (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Trevithick) high pressure steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine) were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain. The application of steam engines to powering cotton mills (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill) and ironworks (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironworks)watermill (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermill).
In the ....ile sector, such mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in factories, epitomised by Cottonopolis (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonopolis), the name given to the vast collection of cotton mills (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill), factories (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factories) and administration offices based in Manchester (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester). The assembly line system greatly improved efficiency, both in this and other industries. With a series of men trained to do a single task on a product, then having it moved along to the next worker, the number of finished goods also rose significantly.
Also important was the 1756 rediscovery of concrete (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete) (based on hydraulic lime mortar (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_mortar)) by the British engineer John Smeaton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smeaton), which had been lost for 13 centuries. enabled these to be built in places that were most convenient because other resources were available, rather than where there was water to power a [24] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-23)

Transfer of knowledge



Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden) and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.




Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Society) of Birmingham (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham), in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution".[25] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-24) Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts) published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.

There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia) such as Harris's Lexicon Technicum (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum) (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's Cyclopaedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopaedia)Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the De......ions des Arts et Métiers (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De......ions_des_Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers) and Diderot's Encyclopédie (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die) explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates. (1802-1819) contain much of value.

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annales_des_Mines&action=edit&redlink=1), published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.

Technological developments in Britain
....ile manufacture



Main article: ....ile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....ile_manufacture_during_the_Industrial_Revoluti on)

In the early 18th century, British ....ile manufacture was based on wool (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool)artisans (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan), doing the spinning (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_%28....iles%29) and weaving (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving)cottage industry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottage_industry). Flax (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax) and cotton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton) were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output.
Use of the spinning wheel (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_wheel) and hand loom (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom) restricted the production capacity of the industry, but incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.
Lewis Paul (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Paul) patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flyer-and-bobbin&action=edit&redlink=1)Birmingham (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham). Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey). In 1743, a factory was opened in Northampton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northampton) with fifty spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Bourn&action=edit&redlink=1) in Leominster (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leominster), but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding) machines in 1748. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill). Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Arkwright) in his water frame (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_frame) and Samuel Crompton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Crompton) in his spinning mule (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_mule).
Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn)shuttles (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_%28weaving%29) and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that the new machines were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions destroyed.
To capitalise upon these advances, it took a class of entrepreneurs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneur), of which the most famous is Richard Arkwright (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Arkwright). He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as Thomas Highs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Highs) and John Kay (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kay_%28Spinning_Frame%29); Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill) which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power — first horse power (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_power) and then water power (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_power) — which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Before long steam power (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt_steam_engine) was applied to drive ....ile machinery which was processed by individual on their own premises. This system is called a system for drawing wool to a more even thickness, developed with the help of John Wyatt in increased greatly, which fed a weaving industry that was advancing with improvements to .

....llurgy


The major change in the ....l industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of organic fuels based on wood (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood) with fossil fuel (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel) based on coal. Much of this happened somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Clerke) and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace) known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames, which contained carbon monoxide (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide), playing on the ore (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore) and reducing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox) the oxide (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide) to ....l. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur) in the coal do not migrate into the ....l. This technology was applied to lead (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead) from 1678 and to copper (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper) from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. The foundry cupola is a different (and later) innovation.

This was followed by Abraham Darby (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I), who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace) at Coalbrookdale (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalbrookdale) in 1709. However, the coke pig iron (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron)Abraham Darby II (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II) built Horsehay (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsehay) and Ketley (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketley) furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron. he made was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in forges until the mid 1750s, when his son

Bar iron (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_iron) for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finery_forge), as it long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The first is referred to today as potting and stamping (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Potting_and_stamping&action=edit&redlink=1), but this was superseded by Henry Cort's (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cort) puddling (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_furnace) process. From 1785, perhaps because the improved version of potting and stamping was about to come out of patent, a great expansion in the output of the British iron industry began. The new processes did not depend on the use of charcoal (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal) at all and were therefore not limited by charcoal sources.

Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally from Sweden (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden) from the mid 17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased because of the new iron making technology, and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron) consumer goods (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_goods).

Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative The Iron Bridge (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge) in 1778 by Abraham Darby III (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III).


An improvement was made in the production of steel (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel), which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for the cutting edge of tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman) developed his crucible steel (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_steel) technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementation_process).

The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided the development of boilers and steam engines, and eventually railways. Improvements in machine tools (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool) allowed better working of iron and steel and further boosted the industrial growth of Britain.

Mining

Coal mining (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_coal_mining) in Britain, particularly in South Wales (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Wales) started early. Before the steam engine, pits (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-pit_mine) were often shallow bell pits (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_pit) following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adit) or drift mine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_mine) driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaft_mining) was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sough) (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of James Watt's more efficient steam engine from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firedamp) in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_lamp) which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphrey Davy (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Humphrey_Davy) and independently by George Stephenson (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Stephenson). However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_dust) explosions (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion), so casualties grew during the entire nineteenth century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.

Steam power



Main article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_power_during_the_Industrial_Revolution)



The development of the stationary steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary_steam_engine) was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution; however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.

The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Savery) in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower) (hp) and was used as in numerous water works and tried in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The miner's Friend), but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions

The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced by Thomas Newcomen (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen) from 1719. Newcomen apparently conceived his machine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent.[26] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-25) Newcomen's engine appears to have been based on Papin's (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin)plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-acting. experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by of a vertical
A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary) in 1722 ,Germany, Austria (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria), and Sweden (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden). A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smeaton) built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.



A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt). With the close collaboration Matthew Boulton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Boulton), he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt_steam_engine), which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs.
Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulton_%26_Watt) had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace), and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5 kW).
The development of machine tools (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tools), such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the ....l parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_engine), built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_engine). Towards the turn of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Trevithick), and the American, Oliver Evans (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evans) began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotive) and steam boats (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat).
In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent, the steam engine underwent many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers.

Chemicals



The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphuric_acid) by the lead chamber process (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_chamber_process) invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roebuck) (James Watt's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead). Instead of a few pounds at a time, he was able to make a hundred pounds (45 kg) or so at a time in each of the chambers.
The production of an alkali (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali) on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Leblanc) succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate). The Leblanc process (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leblanc_process) was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid). The sodium sulphate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfate) was heated with limestone (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone) (calcium carbonate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonate)) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate) and calcium sulphide (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_sulfide). Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ash) proved economical compared to that from burning certain plants (barilla (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barilla)) or from kelp (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp), which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,[27] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-Clow52-26) and also to potash (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potash) (potassium carbonate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_carbonate)) derived from hardwood ashes.
These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, ....ile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleach) cloth.
The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_hypochlorite)) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tennant) in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Louis_Berthollet), revolutionised the bleaching processes in the ....ile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the ....iles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow), became the largest chemical plant in the world.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Aspdin), a British brick layer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cement) which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintering) a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1400 °C, then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete). Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Isambard_Brunel) several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Tunnel).[28] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution#cite_note-27)London sewerage system (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_sewerage_system) a generation later Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the .

Further reading....here (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Industrial_Revolution)